Reciprocity In All Its Forms Essay -- Essays Papers

Reciprocity In All Its Forms Reciprocity is symbolic of creating, maintaining, or strengthening social relationships as well as satisfying the material needs and wants of someone in need. It refers to the exchange of objects without the use of money or other media of exchange. It can take the form of sharing, hospitality, gifts, or bartering. Anthropologists identify three forms of reciprocity. One form is generalized reciprocity, which is the giving of goods without expectation of a return of equal value at any definite future time. Generalized reciprocity occurs mainly between individuals who are emotionally attached to one another and have a responsibility to help one another on the basis of need. In the United States, parents who provide their children with shelter, food, vehicles, college educations, and interest-free loans are practicing generalized reciprocity. Giving without the expectation of a quick and equivalent return should also occur between certain other kinds of social relations, such as wives and husbands, siblings, and sometimes close friends. Among certain groups of people more goods are exchanged using this form than any other. For example, most members of small hunting and gathering groups are expected to share food and be generous with their possessions. Generalized reciprocity happens in all human populations and is the dominant mode of exchange in v ery small groups in which all or most members are relatives. Another form is balanced reciprocity, in which the products exchanged are expected to have roughly equal value. Moreover, another characteristic is that there is no bargaining between the parties. The return may be expected immediately, or whenever the giver demands it, or by some specified... ... reciprocity into another can be used as a way of changing the nature of a social relationship. Because the form of reciprocity practiced between two individuals is related to the degree of social distance between them, the social distance can be decreased or increased by one party initiating a new form of exchange. For example, someone can draw another person closer by tentatively initiating a relationship of balanced reciprocity. In conclusion, forms of reciprocity tend to be associated with types of social relations, so the reciprocity practiced between people changes as their relationship changes. People can use reciprocity to achieve social goals. For example, people can send positive or negative messages by either reciprocating or refusing to reciprocate gifts or invitations. Lastly, reciprocity can be used as a way of shortening or lengthening social distance.

Examining Ethnic Differences in Achievemen Essay

1. The definition of an ethnic group is a group of people of the same race or nationality that share the same cultural norms and values. 2. Three ways in which the education system may encourage separation between children of different ethnic backgrounds are: Labelling and teacher racism, many teachers label their students and studies by interactionist sociologists found out that many teachers labelled black children as disruptive and they didn’t want them in their class. Another reason is the ethnocentric curriculum. Troyna and Williams describe the curriculum in British schools as ethnocentric because it gives priority to white culture and the English language; this causes separation between white pupils and other ethnic pupils. A final reason is the selection and segregation available to schools. David Gillborn argues that marketization has given schools greater scope to select pupils. This puts some ethnic minority pupils at a disadvantage because selection gives more scope for negative stereotypes to influence decisions about school admissions. 3. There are many ways in which factors in children’s home background may lead to differences in achievement levels between ethnic groups. The first way is cultural deprivation; this is split into 3 aspects. The first is intellectual and linguistic skills. Cultural deprivation theorists argue that many children from low-income black families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching experiences. Bereiter and Engelmann consider the language spoken by low-income black American families as inadequate for educational success. The next aspect is attitudes and values. Cultural deprivation theorists say that some black children are socialised into a subculture that instils a fatalistic ‘live for toady’ attitude that does not value education and leaves them unequipped for success. The final aspect of cultural deprivation is family structure and parental support. Daniel Moynihan argues that because many black families are headed by a lone mother, their children are deprived of adequate care because she has to struggle financially in the absence of a male breadwinner. Also Ken Pryce claims that Asians are higher achievers because their cukture is more resistant to racism and gives them a greater sense of self-worth. However, he argues, black Caribbean culture is less cohesive and less resistant to racism. As a result, many balck pupils have low self-esteem and under-achieve. Another reason is Material deprivation and class. According to Flaherty; Pakistani’s and Bangladeshis are over three times more likely than whites to be in the poorest fifth of the population, as a result statistics show that Pakistani and Bangladeshi boys are among the lowest ethnic groups in the country to obtain 5 A-C GCSE’s. A final reason is racism in wider society. David Mason says â€Å" discrimination is a continuing and persistent feature of the experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin. † 4. The differences in educational attainment between different groups of pupils have been a major focus of much sociological research. These differences can often be seen to be largely due to different social class, but also gender or ethnicity. Social class is the most significant and dominant factor when looking at these differences, but ethnicity also has a relative impact on educational achievementÃ'Ž Education has a key role to play in eradicating racism and valuing diversity and it a responsibility for all educational establishments, including those with few or no ethnic minority pupils. Promoting racial equality demands a whole school approach and commitment from all those who are involved in the life and work of their school. Racism is linked to the educational achievement of minority ethnic groups, however the connections are complex. Gilborn and Mirza conclude that ‘social class and gender differences are also associated with differences in attainment but neither can account for persistent underlying ethnic inequalities: comparing like with like, African Caribbean, Pakistani and Bangladeshi pupils do not enjoy equal opportunities. ’ They also argue that in promoting educational inclusion as a means of raising standards, there is a need ‘for clarity and guidance in translating the commitment to equality and inclusion into policy proposals and practice at the local and school level. Many cultural deprivation theorists see the lack of intellectual and linguistic skills as a major cause of under-achievement. Gordon Bowker identifies their lack of standard English as a major barrier to progress in education and integration into wider society. However the Swann Report found that language was not a major factor in under-achievement. Other cultural deprivation theorists suc as Charles Murray argue that a high rate of lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models lead to the under-achievement of some minorities. Also Anthony Flew believes that ethnic differences in achievement stem from cultural differences outside the education system, not discrimination within it. However Geoffrey Driver criticises the cultural deprivation theory for ignoring the positive effects of ethnicity on achievement. He shows that the black Caribbean family, far from being dysfunctional, provides girls with positive role models of strong independent wome Driver argues this is why black girls tend to be more successful in education than black boys. Some socilogists that the ethnic differences in education are cause by racism. John Rex shows how racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and how this worsens the poverty faced by ethnic minorities. In housing, for instance, discrimination means that minorities are more likely to be forced into substandard acoomodation than white people of the same class. This creates separation due to the ethnic children not being able to study at home and therefore getting lower grades than the white children who are able to study at home.

Child Labour Essay

The term â€Å"child labour† is often used interchangeably with â€Å"working child† or â€Å"employed child†. While all these terms are defined on the basis of age of the person working. According to the Constitution of India, child labourer may be defined as a person who is below the age of 14 years and is working for an earning. However, child labour denies children the opportunities for mental and physical development and consequently their life chances are marred. Children engaged in domestic work or helping their parents in agricultural or household pursuits do not get income but their work interferes with their childhood activities like education and recreation. Hence child labour needs to be defined in a manner which will include both paid and unpaid work. The Operation Research Group of Boards has defined a child labourer as a person who is in the age group of 5 to 15 years and who is at paid or unpaid work and remains busy for any hour of the day within or outside the family. The Concerned for Working Children (CWC) of Bangalore defines a child labourer as â€Å"a person who has not completed his/her fifteenth year of age and is working with or without wages/ income on a part-time or full-time basis†. Poverty and adult unemployment are the main reasons for the existence of child labour, vested interests of employers also encourage its perpetuation. The employers pay low wage to child labour for the same quantum of work that adults can do. Types of Child Labour. The ILO has given a typology of child work which is applicable across the countries. The categories are as follows i) Domestic Non-monetary Work. Children in both rural and urban areas undertake unpaid work within the family for maintenance of the household. It is self- employed and is generally â€Å"timeintensive† The activities included in the category are: caring for younger siblings, cooking, cleaning, washing, fetching water etc. Such work in India is done mainly by girls. ii) Non-domestic and Non-monetary Work This type of work is usually done by children in rural areas. It includes activities like tending of livestock, protecting crops from birds and animals, hunting, weeding etc. This work is also timeintensive and is often intermixed with domestic work. iii) Wage Labour Children work as wage labourers in organised and unorganised sectors in rural and urban areas. They work in artisan production, small scale production, in trade, manufacturing and service occupations. They work in restaurants, as ragpickers, hawkers, newspaper vendors etc. They are preferred to adults because they can be paid low wage for the same quantum of work that an adult does. iv) Bonded Labour Children work as bonded labourers. They are pledged by the parents against a debt or loan till the loan with interest is repaid. They work in exchange of food or nominal wage. Sometimes, an agreement is made between the parents of the child and the employer to work for a specific period of time. The bonded labour system is found both in rural and urban unorganised sector. Although bonded labour is abolished by law, it is practiced in many parts of India even today. CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR ïÆ'Ëœ Poverty ïÆ'Ëœ Parental illiteracy ïÆ'Ëœ Tradition of making children learn the family skills ïÆ'Ëœ Absence of universal compulsory Primary education ïÆ'Ëœ Social apathy and tolerance of child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Ignorance of the parents about the adverse consequences of Child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Ineffective enforcement of the legal provisions pertaining to child labour ïÆ'Ëœ Non-availability of and non-accessibility to schools ïÆ'Ëœ Irrelevant and non-attractive school curriculum ïÆ'Ëœ Employers prefer children as they constitute cheap labour and they are not able to organize themselves against exploitation Banning of Child Labour There are two opinions on the question of continuance or banning of child labour in India. One group of people think that child labour should be banned since it is detrimental to physical and mental health of the child and is against the Directive Principles of the Constitution of India. The other group considers abolition of poverty as a pre-condition for abolition of child labour. They pled that child labour should be regulated so that children are not employed in hazardous work. The Government of India is taking steps to constitute a Technical Committee for identifying occupations which are hazardous for children. The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 prohibits the employment of child labour below age of 14 in factories, mines and in other firms of hazardous employment and regulates the working conditions of the children in other employment. Following another notification in 1993 under their law the government has prohibited employment of children in the Slaughter houses, printing, cashew de-scaling and processing, and soldering. In 1994 a National Authority for the elimination of Child Labour was set up under the chairmanship of the Labour Minister to co-ordinate the efforts of different arms of the government for the progressive elimination of child labour. The Government of India has also adopted a National Labour Policy in 1987 in accordance with the constitutional mandate and the prevailing legislation on child labour. // o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t=†Ã¢â‚¬ ,o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "studymoose.com"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e

John Updike`s A&P Essay

â€Å"A & P† is first-person narrative revealing the delusively ordinary story related by the checkout boy in the grocery store named in the title. In â€Å"A & P† the first-person narrator is defined largely by his tone and vocabulary. Updike molds his protagonist through the use of specific writing style, thus Sammy is casual and colloquial. The customers in his grocery are referred to as â€Å"the sheep† the commonness of which has been one day disturbed by the appearance of a sexually uninhibited, young ladies in bathing suits. Surveying the three girls as they wander the aisles, Sammy describes the girls, and here Updike’s style is prolifically intoxicated with the description of the girls with the flights of slang language, trying to show why these teenagers deserve the sacrifice: chunky with â€Å"a sweet broad soft-looking can†, breasts, on the other hand, become â€Å"two smooth scoops of vanilla†, the shoulder bones become â€Å"dented sheet of metal tilted in the light†. Besides, Sammy’s narration is lard with the discourse markers that make his flow of narration softer and folksy: â€Å"kind of jerk†; â€Å"she kind of led them†; â€Å"she had sort of oaky hair† The colloquial style is expressed not only in the vocabulary of the protagonist but in the violated sentence structures. Updike’s uniqueness lies in his process of detachment. Coming in adjective or adverb modifiers rather than main sentence elements, the ironic posture emerges without affecting plot: â€Å"and a tall one, with black hair that hadn’t quite frizzed right, and one of these sunburns right across under the eyes, and a chin that was too long–you know, the kind of girl other girls think is very â€Å"striking† and â€Å"attractive† but never quite makes it, as they very well know, which is why they like her so much† Not rare are also broken structures like: â€Å"She had on a kind of dirty-pink–beige maybe, I don’t know–bathing suit†, or â€Å"The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle–the girls were walking against the usual traffic (not that we have one-way signs or anything)–were pretty hilarious. † The story is presented through the present-tense narration. Such choice of grammar technique imparts narration the sense of immediacy, makes it a chronicle of one event, so that reader feels as if he himself is a witness of that event. â€Å"IN WALKS these three girls in nothing but bathing suits†, â€Å"The girls, and who’d blame them, are in a hurry to get out, †¦ †, â€Å"Lengel sighs and begins to look very patient and old and gray. † Updike’s striking adjectives appear often: â€Å"kind of dirty-pink–beige maybe†, â€Å"chubby berry-face†, â€Å"long white prima-donna legs†, â€Å"the cat-and-dog-food-breakfastcereal-macaroni-rice-raisins-seasonings-spreadsspaghetti-soft-drinks-crackers-and-cookies aisle†; Their intrusiveness increases and besides literary irony, they produce an ambiguity of intent or author’s attitude (hence diction) in his story, which is matched somewhat by unexpected metaphors or visual comparisons, like â€Å"two smoothest scoops of vanilla†, â€Å"outside the sunshine is skating around on the asphalt outside the sunshine is skating around on the asphalt†, â€Å"his back [was] stiff, as if he’d just had an injection of iron†. All of these figures, although appropriate functionally to the text, often call attention to themselves and piece out Updike’s style. Updike, John (1962) Pigeon Feathers, and Other Stories. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Young People in Society

Explain how political, economic and social constructs can be used to categories society. Look at how Irish society stratifies according to social class and gender. Sociologists develop theories and concepts to help reveal the structure of social life and they engage in numerous different forms of empirical Investigation to test and develop these theories. They are Interested In how people communicate and create meaning and understanding, but they are also interested in questions of power and inequality.They use a variety of sources such as historical documents, observations, river research to help develop reliable information about how society operates. Define social stratification Social stratification is a system where people are ranked hierarchically which leads to groups of people being classified into layers and strata (class, caste, slavery and estate).Class – social class system Is a system of stratification that results from unequal distribution of wealth, power and pr estige. Caste -? this is a fixed arrangement of strata from the most to the least privileged. Estate – this consist three different strata or layers – aristocracy, clergy and commoners. Slavery – this is the oldest and most extreme form of stratification or inequality in which some people are literally owned by others as property.All social stratification systems share four basic principles each reflecting how these systems cause inequalities based on class, gender, ethnicity, age, religious affiliation and consequences at an Individual and at a collective level In society, no one social stratification system Is unique, each system Is a characteristic of the society It relates to and it is not simply a reflection of differences at an individual level, nor is it a new incept as afore mentioned but it is a system that has and will persist over generations and although stratification systems may not be an exact replica In each society, fundamentally stratification systems are universal albeit widely variable, they also incorporate ideological beliefs while also engendering shared identities (Macaroni et a', 2005). Do all societies stratify? If so, in what way? Virtually all societies have some form of stratification or structured inequalities that are organized and that persist over time. It Is universal but variable and seems to be found everywhere. At the same time, what is unequal and how unequal it is varies from one society to another.For example, I) Social stratification persist over generation – in all societies, parents confer their social positions on their children, so that patterns of inequality stay much the same from generation to generation. (Monoclonal et a', 2005). II) Some Individuals do also experience social mobility -? It may be downward or upward. Society celebrate the achievements of those who rose to people are regarded as more important than others, more worthy of respect or seen as more useful than others in ce rtain situations. It is also evident that people could move downward as a result of illness, unemployment, economic break-down, business setback etc.However, social standing of most people remain unchanged for a life time – like the Royal Family in England. What system of stratification is in operation in Ireland? Is it an open or close system of stratification? The social stratification in Ireland today is undefined. However, the class system seem to be in operation in Ireland and it is considered a close system. A closed system does not afford a person the same opportunity, and as a result a person's position in fife is solely determined by the family group they are born into. Identity and belonging dominate the social class in modern Ireland. This can be to the majority of people defined by two categories: the first being wealth (Middle class).If you are wealthy you have a lot more opportunities in education, professionals or higher managerial e. G. Senior government worke rs, doctors, farmers, company directors etc. And; secondly being poor (Lower class). – these are people in lower scale in the society e. G. School teachers, driver, machine operator, bar-worker waitress, cleaner, call- centre worker etc. The rate of lower class status rocketed since recession. (Hyde et al, 2007:65-66) Describe the system of stratification found in Ireland. How is it broken down? (include tables and diagrams here if relevant) During the Celtic Tiger it was perceived that Ireland as a whole was very wealthy and many people were classed as Wealthy or ‘upper class'.However since the recession hit the social status regarding the wealth of the country has deteriorated. Today, a larger number of the population are working or middle class. The growing unemployment rate has forced many people, including well educated individuals to rely on state benefits. This has been a huge factor in the rapid decrease in the social status of the country. Social mobility in Ir eland appears to be going in the wrong direction. Not only is the social stratification in Ireland defined by its economic status, but also by a number of other factors; for example; a person's religion. In the past the influence the Catholic Church had on people determined the way they lived there life.Catholic priests were understood to be very well respected figures in society and anyone of the catholic religion were accepted as part of the community however individuals of a different faith were viewed as outsiders. Nowadays a person's faith does not have as big an influence on their social status and many people from different religious backgrounds are accepted in Irish communities. Does class/socio- economic position, impact on your health? Please provide evidence, statistics to There are differences among people in the amount of access they have to the resources of wealth and prestige in most societies. Such differences among people in terms of income and status are usually re ferred to as social class differences. The categories that people have been assigned to by virtue of their occupation have been marred with patterns of illness in society.The lower your place in the social class scale, the worse is likely to be your health status and visa-versa (Hyde et al, 2007). Although race, gender, age etc have influenced socio-economic status, classification by occupation tends to be more common; hence in Ireland, a person's social class is measured according to his or her occupation while social class of children is determined by parents' occupation (Denote and Cannon, 2003). According to Denote and Cannon, there are huge inequalities between the classes in the distribution of wealth in the country. It is estimated that 10 per cent of the population own nearly half the wealth in the country, therefore 90 per cent of the population share the other half, but not equally. Ibid:71 in McDonald B, 2009) Health inequalities are often observed along a social rise. Th is means that the more favorable your social circumstances such as income or education, the better your chance of enjoying good health and a longer life. While there is a significant gap between the wealthy and the poor, the relationship between social circumstances in health is in fact a graded one. Source of data ‘Inequalities in Mortality 1989-1998' A series of studies by the Institute of Public Health in Ireland (PIP) found that the number of people living with a chronic condition is expected to increase dramatically by 2020 and that disproportionately more of these people will belong to the older population.

Diverse Practices in Business Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Diverse Practices in Business Culture - Essay Example The criterion to use diverse practices is successful only when a firm is able to ascertain in what context they would be beneficial for them. The cross-cultural training has been given to students so they can understand the differences among cultures and hence, can adapt global business practices acceptable for all. Hofstede’s framework of cultural dimensions in a workplace has been considered an adequate system to ascertain, what kind of diverse practices would work in a specific region and how can a foreign company can sustain in a different culture without conflicting with their diverse cultural values. Hence, modernization and convergence have already affected the diversity of different cultures, with the domination of western capitalists the culture at the workplace is considered as a universal culture. Nevertheless, one needs to learn in what amount diversity would be acceptable in conflict with the national culture. Since national culture directly influences job performance, therefore, its effects can increase and decrease according to the nature of the job. Consequently, cultural norms if taken into consideration while formulating workplace norms results in fruitful outcomes. Afterwards, diversity does not become a cause of emotional turmoil instead it becomes acceptable even in diverse cultures without resistance.

Case study 1 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

1 - Case Study Example Many of her contributions are ignored and senses gender hierarchy segregation. Due to this, she starts questioning her own professional competence and how to apply her knowledge and skills when treating new clients. This angers Susan and makes her feel isolated. She decides to discuss her concerns with Daisy, who seems very close to the locals and agrees to mentor Susan. Introduction The society has been found to be highly in denial of the worrying trends. People believe in various myths, a reason why they could have opted not to talk to Susan. There are believes that people who talk about suicide are trying to get attention. People who contemplate on committing suicide after making the decision cannot be stopped from taking away their lives. The assumption that people who commit suicide are crazy and weak is wrong. Other people believe that those people who talks about suicide have the intention of manipulating others is not true. Most of the communities believe that the young peopl e do not think about suicide because they have the whole life to live. Research has revealed a worrying trend on the levels of suicide among the adolescents and young adults. Globally, youth have been found to be faced with a high risk of committing suicide than the old people and the children. The age of vigorous changes in the physiology of the youth and fear of maturity are a reason for this trend. Moreover, the various issues affecting them have been found to have adverse effects, yet more dangerous effects on them. Increased pressure from the society that includes expectations, dreams and ambitions also contribute to the high cases of risk among the youth. Recently, there has been a sharp rise in the number of suicides among the youth around the world. Startling statistics have been reported in various countries due to the sharp increase in cases of suicide. While a number of people have been unsuccessful in suicide attempts, others have successfully committed suicide. A lot of studies have been conducted to determine the risk factors that cause suicide among the adolescent people. One death can have a significant impact on the population health data due to low numbers of this population within the general Australian population context. However, in areas where Aboriginal communities reside, suicide figures are very high. Their lifestyles, the community and society beliefs have a major contribution to the high cases of suicide. This paper will look at the various causes of the increased cases of suicide among the youth in Aboriginal community and the various interventions of dealing with the cases of suicide. Literature Review Research based on population of young people has identified recognized risks for suicide attempts. They include gender, race or ethnicity, historical cases of depression, hopelessness, alcohol use and drug abuse, sexualisation and violence. Factors that are likely to trigger these risks are underlying psychological stress such as mar ginalization, isolation, and rejection. Among other factors, homosexuality has been suggested as a major contributor for suicide. Gay, lesbianism and bisexuality have not been proven to have successful influence on suicide. However, suicides related to gay youth have proved to be difficult due to the social stigma